1(a): Fermions and Bosons
- Fermion A particle with totally antisymmetric
composite quantum states, which means it must obey the Pauli exclusion
principle and hence Fermi-Dirac statistics. They have half-integer
spin. Among them are the fundamental fermions, those without
substructure, the quarks and the leptons.
- Boson
A particle with totally symmetric composite quantum
states, which exempts them from the Pauli exclusion principle, and that
hence obeys Bose-Einstein statistics. They have integer spin. Among
them are the fundamental bosons, those without substructure, the gauge
bosons and the scalar (Higgs) boson.
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The table of fundamental particles
divides its particles into two types . There are fermions and there
are bosons. Chapter One has, to this point, made no
mention
of
bosons. There is a good reason for this.
Fermions and bosons are very different. The fundamental fermions are matter objects and the fundamental bosons are force
objects. What this means is that fermions have substance and the
bosons "mediate" the substances by carrying forces between them. It can
be argued that bosons are more mathematical
necessities than real
particles although experiments have resulted in their observation.
Later chapters of the Treatise suggest that the observers may have been
seeing what they wanted to see and that the reality is somewhat different.
All the
fundamental particles are so insubstantial that current observations do little more
than confirm their existence. They
are creatures of the Quantum Theory
with most of them having been predicted mathematically before their detection. The property
measures attributed to them are mathematical representations
rather than actual measures. Spin, for example, which
may equate to
rotation, is presented in measures of 0, ½, 1, and so on.
The
evolutionary form of this Treatise presents the fundamental particles in
considerable detail. Without supplanting the Standard Model of Fundamental Particles,
the additional information supplied by the Treatise allows
them to be realigned to accord with their primary
characteristic. The primary characteristic is whether or not they are stable.
- Stable particle
A particle with mechanisms and
processes
that maintain its stability in changing conditions.
- Unstable particle
A particle with mechanisms and
processes that are incapable of bringing it to
stability or maintaining stability.
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The
realignment results in changes to the Current Paradigm. The principle changes are these:
- Photons:
In the Current Paradigm the photon is a fundamental
boson. It is massless, chargeless,
and has a spin of 1.
In the Treatise, the photon is a stable particle made of teels gravitationally bound into a centrifugal (and
thus chargeless) structure. Photons have a small measure of mass which is undetectable with our current equipment. The
mass varies with the photon's wavelength. The most massive are the gamma photons. The least massive are the ELF photons. Photons move constantly at lightspeed
is due to internal regulating mechanisms. The mechanisms counter
changes in external gravitypulls by
ejecting or absorbing teels. This equates to the ejecting or absorbing
of mass and energy. Photons are described in detail in
Chapter Eleven.
- Quarks:
In the Current Paradigm the quark is a fundamental
fermion. It has mass, charge, and spin. Quarks are found within composite particles called baryons and mesons. Baryons contain three quarks. Mesons contain two. In the Treatise, the quark is an unstable
particle. When not prevented from doing so, quarks decay into lesser stable particles or
they dissipate. When a quark is within the structure of
the baryon or meson its decay process is suspended. Quarks
come in two forms. Axially structured quarks are charged particles. Centrifugally structured quarks are chargeless particles.
The mass of a quark varies according to its structure and to which type
of composite particle it is within. Quarks are described in detail
in Chapter Thirteen (Electrons) and Chapter Fifteen
(Nucleons).
- Electrons:
In
the Current Paradigm. the electron is fundamental fermion with mass,
charge, and spin. It is fundamental because it has no known
components or substructure. In
the Treatise, the electron is a meson. A meson is a composite particle consisting
of two quarks. One quark is axially structured and the other is centrifugally
structured. Electrons are described with in detail in Chapter
Thirteen.
The remaining bosons, the W, the Z, and the Higgs are mathematically
predicted objects. The W and the Z are force carriers in the same mould as the gluon. The Higgs is thought to give mass to other particles. Like the gluon, these particles may have been detected. In the
Treatise, they only exist as temporary aggregations of teels although the
effects that led to their hypothesisation are real enough.
Appendix 1(b): Bosons and Forces
- Boson
A particle with totally symmetric composite quantum
states, which exempts them from the Pauli exclusion principle, and that
hence obeys Bose-Einstein statistics. They have integer spin. Among
them are the fundamental bosons, those without substructure, the gauge
bosons and the scalar (Higgs) boson.
- Force
Any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the velocity
of an object. Force can instinctively be described as a push or a pull.
A force has both magnitude and direction.
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In the Current Paradigm, the standard model of fundamental particles provides for twelve quarks, twelve leptons, four gauge bosons, and one scalar boson. Appendix 1(a)
rearranged the quarks and leptons according to whether or not they are
stable particles. It also stripped the gauge bosons of their force carrier status.
Quantum
physics presents each gauge boson as a physical manifestation of one of
the four fundamental forces. Each is a mediating particle which
"carries" the force between the affected quarks or leptons. The strong
force has the gluon, the electromagnetic
force has the photon, the weak force has the W and Z bosons, and the
gravitational force has the graviton.
A force is an interaction
between particles that makes the motion of the particles
change. The change can be acceleration or deceleration or it can
be a change in direction. Insofar as the changes are measurable and
predictable, the forces are understood. As to why or how they work,
they are not.
The force
concept is a devolutionary concept of long standing with the first
thoughts on the subject appearing over two thousand years ago.
In its current form it is a way of making use of measurable interactions without
needing to understand the underlying mechanisms and processes. It is a
successful concept if not an illuminating one. The evolutionary
Treatise, coming at the
subject from the opposite direction and without the baggage of
years, is able to see the
forces with more clarity.
Electromagnetism
The
most apparent of the "force carriers" is the photon. It is a
stable
particle with a measure of mass and spinspeed. Larger objects emit
photons
as a product of their stabilisation mechanisms. Photons are so
insubstantial that they can be
absorbed by almost every type of object. Through being emitted and
absorbed, photons carry mass and spinspeed from one object to
another.
The
workings of the electromagnetic force are described in detail in Chapters 11 and 13. The force is actually a composite of a number of different
mechanisms which combine to present what is seen as electromagnetism. Photons play an important part in a
number of the involved mechanisms but the photonic actions are a long way
short of being the whole story.
The Weak Force
The
weak force governs the transmutation of quarks from one type to
another. During the process, the mass of the fermions alters,
being moderated by the emission of W and Z particles.
The
workings of the weak force are described in detail in Chapters 13 and
15. The process is a composite of a number of mechanisms.
The composite is simpler than electromagnetism but the
mechanisms involved are much the same, the difference being more
a matter of context than anything more fundamental. During the
transmutation process, substantial numbers of teels can be ejected or absorbed. These can accrete to become W and
Z particles. W and Z particles are highly unstable and thus very
short-lived.
The Strong Force
The
strong force bonds quarks together to form electrons and nucleons. They
also bond nucleons together to form nuclides.
Of the four forces,
this is the strongest although its range is limited. It is a complex
force in which the quarks are attracted together to a
specific proximity at which point repulsion dominates the
attraction and the quarks can draw no closer. The bonding is
facilitated by gluons
which pass between the affected quarks.
The
workings of the strong force are described in detail in Chapters 13 and
15. Quarks are unstable particles bound together by their
mutual attractance (a distance property) and held apart by their mutual
repellence (a contact property). Quarks have a complex structure, a
feature of which is envelopment by dense and fast
moving streams of teels. It is the colliding teelstreams
that stop the quarks approaching each other too closely
in much the same way that ping-pong balls ride on a jet
of water.
In the event that an electron, nucleon, or nuclide is made unstable the
quarks eject accretions of teels that may (or may not) equate to
gluons.
The Gravitational Force
This
force is the natural phenomenon by which all things with mass are
brought toward one another. It has already been dealt with in some detail in
this chapter where it is subsumed
into the qualitative measure attractance. The force carrier for
gravitational force is the hypothetical graviton. Individual gravitons have
never been observed and the requirements for a
suitable graviton detector are believed to be so onerous as to
make the construction of one unlikely. Waves have been detected which may be disturbances
moving through fields of gravitons.
Unlike
the other forces, the Treatise finds no readily-apparent mechanical explanation for gravitation. Objects are
drawn toward each other. This is known. Why are objects drawn toward
each other? This is not known.
In
the evolutionary Treatise, the notion of forces falls by the wayside.
Three of the fundamental forces are actually processes underpinned
by describable mechanisms.
The other one, gravitation, is not. Thus it could continue to be considered a "force". But
should it?
In the Current Paradigm, the strength of gravitational attraction can be measured but
not explained and thus it is a force. In the Treatise, the force takes two forms. Gravitational attraction (as
attractance) cannot be explained and thus it is a qualitative property.
Its strength can be measured and thus (as gravitypull) it is a
quantitive measure.
The
Treatise has the form of an evolutionary tree. Near its base are
the two fundamental qualitative properties, one of which is
attractance. Sprouting from them are the five quantitative
measures, one of which is gravitypull. Trying to graft the "force"
concept onto the tree is possible but pointless. Forces have been a
hugely important feature in the history of physics but, if the
assertions in this appendix are correct, they have outlived their
usefulness.
- Fundamental Force A term used in the Current Paradigm to describe an interaction between fundamental fermions that alters the velocity of those fermions relative to each other but for which no mechanical explanation is apparent. .
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As
regards the fundamental scalar boson: the Higgs
boson, it probably exists. Particles that appear to have its
predicted properties have been observed during experiments. In the
Treatise nothing suggests that the experiments should not
produce
what has been observed but, nor is there any suggestion that the
Higgs, and its associated scalar field, have the special abilities
that have been proposed.
1(c) The "expected result" Problem
- Mechanism
A system of parts that operate or
interact in a preordained manner to produce an expected result.
- Process A series of preordained actions that produce an expected result.
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Chapter
One identified attractance and repellence as the
overarching qualitative properties for two families of
quantitive properties. It has also led to the quantitive measures
of the teel in its role as the primordial particle. As
it happens, Chapter One also laid the ground for the notion that the
teel isn't actually THE primordial particle.
As
of now, there is no explanation for attractance and
repellence. There is no obvious reason why one teel should be able to
draw another teel toward it and thereafter collide with that teel
rather than they pass through each
other.
Empirical testing suggests that
nothing happens, that no events take place, without the involvement of
mechanisms and processes. The two are separately defined but they
are deeply entwined with they other. Mechanisms, mostly, serve
as groundwork for the process superstructure.
Mechanisms can stand alone but processes always overlie a
mechanism
or two that keeps thing moving along. Since teels take part in
mechanisms and processes, is it possible that they have them also?
The
answer is: probably.
Because teels
attract and repel, each is a process that produces
an "expected result" - except there is no hint as to what
might
be the "series of preordained actions" that should precede
it. Furthermore, if the teel is a
process, it is normal for there to be one or
more underlying mechanisms. If there are underlying
mechanisms, the teel is a system of parts and is not
primordial.
The
instinct of the author is that there are particles even less
substantial than the teel. However, as things stand there is no
information from which sensible descriptions of them can be
drawn. Until more information becomes available, the teel
is the Treatise's kickstarter.
1(d): The Planck Length Problem
- Moment Zero
The Universe is currently expanding. Moment Zero was when the current expansion began.
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Cosmologists
have extrapolated the expansion of the Universe backward in time to a
point when the Universe had a diameter of one Planck Length. That is
very small diameter indeed and consequently the Universe was very dense and very hot.
Repellence
as a property does not figure large in the Current Paradigm.
Especially, no thought is given to the possibility that there might be
a particle with a density measure of 100%: a particle totally
resistant to any form of penetration or deformation.
If
everything in the Universe is ultimately made of teels, and if
teels are 100% dense, the Big Bang Theory's description of
the early
Universe is wrong. If the Universe is ultimately made of 100%
dense particles, there is a limit to how much it can be
compressed.
Attempts
at estimating the size of a "teel universe" at Moment Zero are made difficult by a lack of
reliable information. The best that
can be done is to perform a profiling exercise. Here are the
parameters:
- Every teel has the same dimensions.
- Every teel is 100% dense.
- Every object in the Universe is a teel or is made of teels.
- The core of every object occupies 1% of the object's volume (See Rutherford's gold foil experiment).
- The dimensions of the Milky Way galaxy are regarded as a median for all galaxies.
And here is the exercise:
- The Milky Way galaxy and its halo are a sphere that has a diameter of 200,000 lightyears.
- A
diameter of 200,000 lightyears equates to a volume of
4,188,790,204,786,390 cubic lightyears.
- If
the stars of the Milky Way are 1% of the volume of the
galaxy sphere, they equate to a sphere with a volume of
41,887,902,047,864 cubic lightyears and a diameter of 43,089
lightyears.
- If
the atoms of the Milky Way are 1% of the volume of the
star sphere, they equate to a sphere with a volume of
418,879,020,479 cubic lightyears and a diameter of 9,284
lightyears.
- If
the nucleons of the Milky way are 1% of the volume of the
atom sphere, they equate to a sphere with a volume of 4,188,790,205
cubic lightyears and a diameter of 2,000 lightyears.
- If the quarks of the Milky Way are 1% of the volume of the
nucleon sphere they equate to a sphere with a volume of 41,887,902
cubic lightyears and a diameter of 431 lightyears.
- If
the teels of the Milky Way are 1% of the volume of the
quark sphere they equate to a sphere with a volume of 418,879 cubic
lightyears and a diameter of 93 lightyears.
- One
current estimate is that the visible Universe contains 125 billion
galaxies.
- If
the visible Universe contains 125 billion galaxies, with an average
volume of 418,879 cubic lightyears and a diameter of 93 lightyears,
that equates to a sphere with a volume of 52,359,877 billion cubic
lightyears and a diameter of 464,159 lightyears.
The diameter of a shade under half a million lightyears is an
underestimate. The calculations are drawn upon that part of the
Universe that is visible to us. Vision for humans is the detection
and interpretation of photons. Photons move at lightspeed so we have no knowledge of any parts
of the Universe from where any emitted photons have not yet had time to reach us. It is generally assumed that the actual universe is bigger than the visible universe which makes the Moment Zero
Universe larger than half a million lightyears across - although by
how much remains unknown.
This
profiling exercise
is crude but the underlying principles are correct. If teels exist and
each is 100% dense, the Planck Length moment zero cannot have
been. Furthermore, if the findings of Chapter Two are correct, even an
estimate of half a million
lightyears across for the visible universe is a considerable
underestimate.
1(e): The Gravitational Mass-Inertial Mass Equivalence
- Inertialmass
The mass of an object measured as its
resistance to being accelerated by an applied force.
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THIS PIECE WILL SHORTLY BE RELOCATED TO THE CHAPTER TWO APPENDICES.
Einstein's thought experiment asserts
that an observer in a windowless room is unable to tell
whether the room is stationary on the surface of the Earth or inside a
spaceship accelerating at 1g. The conclusion drawn is that there is an equivalence between gravitational mass and inertialmass.
What follows is divided into two parts: (a) what the
observer experiences in the room on Planet Earth and (b) what the
observer experiences while in the spacecraft.
(a) The Planet Earth ExperienceThe
observer is inside a windowless room on the surface of Planet Earth.
Ultimately, the observer and the planet, are structures made of
teels. Every teel is gravitypulling every other
teel. Thus the observer and the planet are mutually
attracting each other. The gravitypull of the planetteels is greater than
that of the observerteels so the observer is accelerated toward toward
the planet at 1g. Or
would be accelerated at 1g if the planetteels were not packed and
structured in such a way as to prevent it. Thus the observer
experiences is being held onto the planet at a constant potential acceleration of 1g. (b) The Spaceship ExperienceThe
observer is inside a windowless room inside a spaceship. The
rocket motor is accelerating the spaceship at a
constant 1g which enables the observer to stand on the "floor". The
observer and the floor are ultimately made of teels. The
observerteels are stationary and the floorteels are accelerating toward
the observer at 1g. The
observerteels would fall through the floor if the floorteels were
not packed and structured in such a way as to prevent it. Thus the
observer experiences being held onto the floor by a kinetic acceleration of 1g.
Einstein's
thought experiment demonstrated that the observer can
discern no difference between being pulled (gravitationalmass) at 1g by
the Earth and being
pushed (inertialmass) at 1g by the spaceship. The above description
demonstrates what happens at the level of teels. Taking matters down to
an even more basic level, however, makes for an even clearer
demonstration without any need to consider an observer's "sensations".
Consider
two stationary teels totally isolated from the influence of any other
teels. Place them some distance apart. Each has exactly the same
measurement of mass and gravitypull. Immediately, each
moves toward each other, accelerating as it goes at the rate
dictated by the Gravitational Inverse Square Law. Each is being
gravitypulled by the other and is thus "experiencing" the equivalent of
gravitationalmass. At the same time each has accelerated from zero,
being unable to move immediately at maximum speed, and is thus
"experiencing" the equivalent of inertialmass. Since the only
difference in the motion of each teel is that they are moving in
exactly the opposite direction, each is "experiencing" the equivalence
of gravitationalmass and inertialmass.
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